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Does a Cyclic Universe Mean Ill Be Forced to Live Again

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Theories virtually the end of the universe

The ultimate fate of the universe is a topic in physical cosmology, whose theoretical restrictions allow possible scenarios for the development and ultimate fate of the universe to be described and evaluated. Based on available observational prove, deciding the fate and evolution of the universe has become a valid cosmological question, existence beyond the more often than not untestable constraints of mythological or theological beliefs. Several possible futures take been predicted by different scientific hypotheses, including that the universe might take existed for a finite and space elapsing, or towards explaining the manner and circumstances of its beginning.

Observations made by Edwin Hubble during the 1930s–1950s found that galaxies appeared to be moving away from each other, leading to the currently accepted Large Bang theory. This suggests that the universe began very dense nigh thirteen.787 billion years ago, and information technology has expanded and (on average) become less dense ever since.[1] Confirmation of the Big Bang mostly depends on knowing the charge per unit of expansion, average density of matter, and the physical properties of the mass–energy in the universe.

At that place is a strong consensus among cosmologists that the shape of the universe is considered "flat" (parallel lines stay parallel) and will go on to expand forever.[ii] [three]

Factors that need to be considered in determining the universe's origin and ultimate fate include the average motions of galaxies, the shape and construction of the universe, and the corporeality of night matter and night energy that the universe contains.

Emerging scientific basis [edit]

Theory [edit]

The theoretical scientific exploration of the ultimate fate of the universe became possible with Albert Einstein's 1915 theory of general relativity. General relativity can be employed to describe the universe on the largest possible scale. There are several possible solutions to the equations of full general relativity, and each solution implies a possible ultimate fate of the universe.

Alexander Friedmann proposed several solutions in 1922, as did Georges Lemaître in 1927.[iv] In some of these solutions, the universe has been expanding from an initial singularity which was, essentially, the Big Bang.

Ascertainment [edit]

In 1929, Edwin Hubble published his determination, based on his observations of Cepheid variable stars in distant galaxies, that the universe was expanding. From and then on, the beginning of the universe and its possible end have been the subjects of serious scientific investigation.

Large Bang and Steady State theories [edit]

In 1927, Georges Lemaître set out a theory that has since come to be called the Large Bang theory of the origin of the universe.[iv] In 1948, Fred Hoyle set out his opposing Steady State theory in which the universe continually expanded but remained statistically unchanged as new matter is constantly created. These 2 theories were active contenders until the 1965 discovery, by Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson, of the catholic microwave background radiation, a fact that is a straightforward prediction of the Large Bang theory, and one that the original Steady Country theory could not business relationship for. As a result, the Large Bang theory quickly became the almost widely held view of the origin of the universe.

Cosmological constant [edit]

Einstein and his contemporaries believed in a static universe. When Einstein plant that his general relativity equations could hands be solved in such a way every bit to allow the universe to be expanding at the present and contracting in the far future, he added to those equations what he called a cosmological constant ⁠— ⁠essentially a constant energy density, unaffected by any expansion or contraction ⁠— ⁠whose part was to showtime the effect of gravity on the universe every bit a whole in such a way that the universe would remain static. However, afterwards Hubble appear his decision that the universe was expanding, Einstein would write that his cosmological constant was "the greatest blunder of my life."[5]

Density parameter [edit]

An of import parameter in fate of the universe theory is the density parameter, omega ( Ω {\displaystyle \Omega } ), defined as the boilerplate matter density of the universe divided by a critical value of that density. This selects one of iii possible geometries depending on whether Ω {\displaystyle \Omega } is equal to, less than, or greater than 1 {\displaystyle 1} . These are called, respectively, the flat, open and closed universes. These three adjectives refer to the overall geometry of the universe, and not to the local curving of spacetime acquired by smaller clumps of mass (for case, galaxies and stars). If the primary content of the universe is inert thing, as in the grit models popular for much of the 20th century, at that place is a item fate corresponding to each geometry. Hence cosmologists aimed to determine the fate of the universe by measuring Ω {\displaystyle \Omega } , or equivalently the rate at which the expansion was decelerating.

Repulsive force [edit]

Starting in 1998, observations of supernovas in afar galaxies have been interpreted as consistent[6] with a universe whose expansion is accelerating. Subsequent cosmological theorizing has been designed so as to allow for this possible acceleration, nearly always by invoking night energy, which in its simplest form is just a positive cosmological abiding. In full general, dark energy is a catch-all term for any hypothesized field with negative pressure, commonly with a density that changes as the universe expands.

Role of the shape of the universe [edit]

The ultimate fate of an expanding universe depends on the matter density Ω M {\displaystyle \Omega _{M}} and the dark energy density Ω Λ {\displaystyle \Omega _{\Lambda }}

The current scientific consensus of most cosmologists is that the ultimate fate of the universe depends on its overall shape, how much dark energy information technology contains and on the equation of state which determines how the dark energy density responds to the expansion of the universe.[3] Recent observations conclude, from 7.five billion years after the Big Bang, that the expansion charge per unit of the universe has probably been increasing, commensurate with the Open Universe theory.[7] Nevertheless, other recent measurements by Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe suggest that the universe is either apartment or very close to flat.[2]

Airtight universe [edit]

If Ω > 1 {\displaystyle \Omega >1} , the geometry of space is airtight like the surface of a sphere. The sum of the angles of a triangle exceeds 180 degrees and there are no parallel lines; all lines somewhen meet. The geometry of the universe is, at least on a very large scale, elliptic.

In a closed universe, gravity somewhen stops the expansion of the universe, after which it starts to contract until all matter in the universe collapses to a bespeak, a concluding singularity termed the "Big Crunch", the opposite of the Large Bang. Some new modern theories assume the universe may have a significant amount of nighttime energy, whose repulsive strength may exist sufficient to cause the expansion of the universe to continue forever—even if Ω > 1 {\displaystyle \Omega >1} .[8]

Open universe [edit]

If Ω < 1 {\displaystyle \Omega <i} , the geometry of space is open, i.e., negatively curved like the surface of a saddle. The angles of a triangle sum to less than 180 degrees, and lines that practice not run across are never equidistant; they accept a point of least altitude and otherwise grow apart. The geometry of such a universe is hyperbolic.[9]

Even without dark energy, a negatively curved universe expands forever, with gravity negligibly slowing the rate of expansion. With dark energy, the expansion not only continues only accelerates. The ultimate fate of an open up universe is either universal heat death, a "Large Freeze" (non to be confused with heat decease, despite seemingly similar proper name interpretation ⁠— ⁠come across §Theories about the finish of the universe below), or a "Big Rip",[x] in detail dark free energy, quintessence,[11] and the Big Rip scenario.[12] [13] where the acceleration caused by dark energy eventually becomes so strong that it completely overwhelms the effects of the gravitational, electromagnetic and strong bounden forces.

Conversely, a negative cosmological constant, which would correspond to a negative energy density and positive pressure, would cause even an open universe to re-collapse to a big crunch.

Flat universe [edit]

If the boilerplate density of the universe exactly equals the critical density and so that Ω = 1 {\displaystyle \Omega =1} , then the geometry of the universe is flat: as in Euclidean geometry, the sum of the angles of a triangle is 180 degrees and parallel lines continuously maintain the same distance. Measurements from the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe have confirmed the universe is flat inside a 0.4% margin of error.[2]

In the absence of dark free energy, a flat universe expands forever but at a continually decelerating rate, with expansion asymptotically budgeted aught. With dark free energy, the expansion rate of the universe initially slows down, due to the effects of gravity, simply eventually increases, and the ultimate fate of the universe becomes the aforementioned equally that of an open universe.

Theories about the end of the universe [edit]

The fate of the universe is adamant by its density. The preponderance of evidence to date, based on measurements of the charge per unit of expansion and the mass density, favors a universe that volition continue to expand indefinitely, resulting in the "Big Freeze" scenario beneath.[14] Yet, observations are not conclusive, and alternative models are still possible.[xv]

Big Freeze or Heat Death [edit]

The Big Freeze (or Big Chill) is a scenario nether which continued expansion results in a universe that asymptotically approaches accented naught temperature.[16] This scenario, in combination with the Big Rip scenario, is gaining ground as the most important hypothesis.[17] It could, in the absence of night energy, occur merely nether a flat or hyperbolic geometry. With a positive cosmological constant, it could also occur in a closed universe. In this scenario, stars are expected to form usually for 1012 to 1014 (1–100 trillion) years, but eventually the supply of gas needed for star formation will be exhausted. Every bit existing stars run out of fuel and end to smoothen, the universe will slowly and inexorably grow darker. Eventually black holes will dominate the universe, which themselves will disappear over fourth dimension equally they emit Hawking radiation.[xviii] Over infinite time, at that place would be a spontaneous entropy decrease past the Poincaré recurrence theorem, thermal fluctuations,[19] [20] and the fluctuation theorem.[21] [22]

A related scenario is heat death, which states that the universe goes to a state of maximum entropy in which everything is evenly distributed and in that location are no gradients—which are needed to sustain information processing, 1 form of which is life. The heat expiry scenario is uniform with any of the 3 spatial models, but requires that the universe achieve an eventual temperature minimum.[23]

Big Rip [edit]

The electric current Hubble constant defines a rate of acceleration of the universe not large enough to destroy local structures like galaxies, which are held together by gravity, but large enough to increase the space betwixt them. A steady increment in the Hubble abiding to infinity would result in all textile objects in the universe, starting with galaxies and eventually (in a finite fourth dimension) all forms, no affair how small, disintegrating into unbound elementary particles, radiations and beyond. As the free energy density, scale factor and expansion charge per unit get infinite the universe ends every bit what is effectively a singularity.

In the special example of phantom dark energy, which has supposed negative kinetic free energy that would upshot in a college charge per unit of acceleration than other cosmological constants predict, a more sudden large rip could occur.

Big Crunch [edit]

The Big Crunch. The vertical axis can be considered as expansion or contraction with fourth dimension.

The Big Crunch hypothesis is a symmetric view of the ultimate fate of the universe. But as the Big Bang started as a cosmological expansion, this theory assumes that the average density of the universe will be enough to cease its expansion and the universe will begin contracting. The result is unknown; a simple estimation would have all the matter and space-time in the universe collapse into a dimensionless singularity dorsum into how the universe started with the Big Bang, but at these scales unknown quantum effects need to be considered (meet Quantum gravity). Contempo evidence suggests that this scenario is unlikely merely has non been ruled out, every bit measurements take been bachelor only over a short period of time, relatively speaking, and could opposite in the future.[17]

This scenario allows the Big Blindside to occur immediately after the Large Crunch of a preceding universe. If this happens repeatedly, it creates a cyclic model, which is also known every bit an oscillatory universe. The universe could then consist of an infinite sequence of finite universes, with each finite universe ending with a Large Crunch that is also the Large Bang of the next universe. A problem with the cyclic universe is that it does non reconcile with the second law of thermodynamics, as entropy would build up from oscillation to oscillation and cause the eventual estrus death of the universe[ citation needed ]. Electric current evidence also indicates the universe is not airtight[ citation needed ]. This has acquired cosmologists to carelessness the aquiver universe model. A somewhat similar idea is embraced by the cyclic model, but this idea evades oestrus decease because of an expansion of the branes that dilutes entropy accumulated in the previous bicycle.[ citation needed ]

Large Bounce [edit]

The Big Bounciness is a theorized scientific model related to the beginning of the known universe. It derives from the oscillatory universe or cyclic repetition estimation of the Big Bang where the offset cosmological outcome was the result of the collapse of a previous universe.

According to 1 version of the Large Bang theory of cosmology, in the beginning the universe was infinitely dense. Such a clarification seems to be at odds with other more widely accustomed theories, especially breakthrough mechanics and its doubtfulness principle.[24] Therefore, quantum mechanics has given rise to an alternative version of the Big Blindside theory, specifically that the universe tunneled into being and had a finite density consistent with quantum mechanics, earlier evolving in a manner governed by classical physics.[24] Too, if the universe is airtight, this theory would predict that once this universe collapses it will spawn some other universe in an event similar to the Big Blindside after a universal singularity is reached or a repulsive quantum forcefulness causes re-expansion.

In uncomplicated terms, this theory states that the universe will continuously repeat the bike of a Big Bang, followed up with a Big Crunch.

Catholic uncertainty [edit]

Each possibility described so far is based on a very simple grade for the nighttime energy equation of country. Withal, as the name is meant to imply, very little is currently known about the physics of nighttime energy. If the theory of inflation is true, the universe went through an episode dominated by a different form of dark energy in the first moments of the Big Bang, but inflation concluded, indicating an equation of state far more circuitous than those assumed so far for present-day nighttime energy. It is possible that the dark free energy equation of state could change again, resulting in an event that would have consequences which are extremely difficult to predict or parameterize. As the nature of nighttime free energy and dark matter remain enigmatic, even hypothetical, the possibilities surrounding their coming part in the universe are currently unknown. None of these theoretic endings for the universe are certain. In other words, considering the universe is merely around 14 billion years sometime, extrapolating the trends observed in the cosmic history so far to a considerably longer timescale tin exist criticized every bit being insufficiently substantiated.

Other serious threats to the universe [edit]

There are also some possible events, such as the Large Slurp, which would seriously damage the universe, although the universe equally a whole wouldn't exist completely terminated equally a outcome.

Big Slurp [edit]

This theory posits that the universe currently exists in a imitation vacuum and that information technology could become a true vacuum at any moment.

In order to best understand the false vacuum collapse theory, one must first understand the Higgs field which permeates the universe. Much similar an electromagnetic field, it varies in strength based upon its potential. A true vacuum exists so long as the universe exists in its lowest energy state, in which case the fake vacuum theory is irrelevant. However, if the vacuum is not in its everyman energy state (a false vacuum), it could tunnel into a lower-energy land.[25] This is called vacuum decay. This has the potential to fundamentally alter our universe; in more adventurous scenarios even the various physical constants could have unlike values, severely affecting the foundations of affair, energy, and spacetime. It is as well possible that all structures will be destroyed instantaneously, without any forewarning.[26]

However, but a portion of the universe would be destroyed by the Large Slurp while nearly of the universe would still exist unaffected because galaxies located farther than 4,200 megaparsecs (thirteen,698,567,863 light-years) abroad from each other are moving away from each other faster than the speed of light while the Large Slurp itself cannot expand faster than the speed of light.[27]

Observational constraints on theories [edit]

Choosing amidst these rival scenarios is washed by 'weighing' the universe, for instance, measuring the relative contributions of matter, radiation, dark thing, and dark energy to the critical density. More concretely, competing scenarios are evaluated against information on galaxy clustering and distant supernovas, and on the anisotropies in the cosmic microwave groundwork.

See as well [edit]

  • Alan Guth
  • Andrei Linde
  • Anthropic principle
  • Arrow of fourth dimension
  • Cosmological horizon
  • Cyclic model
  • Freeman Dyson
  • General relativity
  • John D. Barrow
  • Kardashev scale
  • Multiverse
  • Shape of the universe
  • Timeline of the far future
  • Aught-energy universe

References [edit]

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  2. ^ a b c "WMAP- Shape of the Universe". map.gsfc.nasa.gov.
  3. ^ a b "WMAP- Fate of the Universe". map.gsfc.nasa.gov.
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  13. ^ Caldwell, Robert R.; Kamionkowski, Marc; Weinberg, Nevin N. (2003). "Phantom Energy and Cosmic Doomsday". Concrete Review Messages. 91 (vii): 071301. arXiv:astro-ph/0302506. Bibcode:2003PhRvL..91g1301C. doi:x.1103/PhysRevLett.91.071301. PMID 12935004.
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  18. ^ Adams, Fred C.; Laughlin, Gregory (1997). "A dying universe: the long-term fate and development of astrophysical objects". Reviews of Modern Physics. 69 (2): 337–372. arXiv:astro-ph/9701131. Bibcode:1997RvMP...69..337A. doi:ten.1103/RevModPhys.69.337. S2CID 12173790.
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  20. ^ Werlang, T.; Ribeiro, Yard. A. P.; Rigolin, Gustavo (2013). "Interplay Between Breakthrough Phase Transitions and the Behavior of Breakthrough Correlations at Finite Temperatures". International Journal of Modern Physics B. 27: 1345032. arXiv:1205.1046. Bibcode:2013IJMPB..2745032W. doi:10.1142/S021797921345032X. S2CID 119264198.
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    • M. Stone (1976). "Lifetime and decay of excited vacuum states". Phys. Rev. D. 14 (12): 3568–3573. Bibcode:1976PhRvD..14.3568S. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.14.3568.
    • P.H. Frampton (1976). "Vacuum Instability and Higgs Scalar Mass". Phys. Rev. Lett. 37 (21): 1378–1380. Bibcode:1976PhRvL..37.1378F. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.37.1378.
    • K. Stone (1977). "Semiclassical methods for unstable states". Phys. Lett. B. 67 (2): 186–188. Bibcode:1977PhLB...67..186S. doi:ten.1016/0370-2693(77)90099-5.
    • P.H. Frampton (1977). "Consequences of Vacuum Instability in Quantum Field Theory". Phys. Rev. D15 (x): 2922–28. Bibcode:1977PhRvD..15.2922F. doi:ten.1103/PhysRevD.15.2922.
    • S. Coleman (1977). "Fate of the false vacuum: Semiclassical theory". Phys. Rev. D15 (10): 2929–36. Bibcode:1977PhRvD..15.2929C. doi:ten.1103/physrevd.fifteen.2929.
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  26. ^ S. W. Hawking & I. G. Moss (1982). "Supercooled phase transitions in the very early on universe". Phys. Lett. B110 (1): 35–8. Bibcode:1982PhLB..110...35H. doi:ten.1016/0370-2693(82)90946-seven.
  27. ^ How are galaxies moving away faster than lite?

Further reading [edit]

  • Adams, Fred; Gregory Laughlin (2000). The Five Ages of the Universe: Inside the Physics of Eternity. Simon & Schuster Australia. ISBN978-0-684-86576-8.
  • Chaisson, Eric (2001). Catholic Evolution: The Rise of Complexity in Nature. Harvard University Press. ISBN978-0-674-00342-2.
  • Dyson, Freeman (2004). Space in All Directions (the 1985 Gifford Lectures). Harper Perennial. ISBN978-0-06-039081-v.
  • Harrison, Edward (2003). Masks of the Universe: Changing Ideas on the Nature of the Cosmos. Cambridge University Press. ISBN978-0-521-77351-five.
  • Mack, Katie (2020). The Terminate of Everything: (Astrophysically Speaking). Scribner. ISBN978-1982103545.
  • Penrose, Roger (2004). The Route to Reality. Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN978-0-679-45443-4.
  • Prigogine, Ilya (2003). Is Future Given?. Globe Scientific Publishing. ISBN978-981-238-508-6.
  • Smolin, Lee (2001). Three Roads to Quantum Gravity: A New Understanding of Space, Fourth dimension and the Universe. Phoenix. ISBN978-0-7538-1261-7.
  • Morris, Richard (1982). The Fate of the Universe. Playboy Printing, New York. ISBN 978-0-87223-748-half-dozen
  • Islam, Jamal N. (1983). The Ultimate Fate of the Universe, Cambridge Academy Printing, Cambridge. ISBN 978-0521-24814-iii

External links [edit]

  • Baez, J., 2004, "The Terminate of the Universe".
  • Caldwell, R. R.; Kamionski, M.; Weinberg, N. N. (2003). "Phantom Energy and Cosmic Doomsday". Physical Review Letters. 91 (7): 071301. arXiv:astro-ph/0302506. Bibcode:2003PhRvL..91g1301C. doi:10.1103/physrevlett.91.071301. PMID 12935004.
  • Hjalmarsdotter, Linnea, 2005, "Cosmological parameters."
  • George Musser (2010). "Could Fourth dimension End?". Scientific American. 303 (3): 84–91. Bibcode:2010SciAm.303c..84M. doi:ten.1038/scientificamerican0910-84. PMID 20812485.
  • Vaas, Ruediger; Steinhardt, Paul J.; Turok, Neil (2007). "Night Energy and Life'southward Ultimate Hereafter". arXiv:physics/0703183.
  • A Brief History of the Cease of Everything, a BBC Radio 4 series.
  • Cosmology at Caltech.
  • Jamal Nazrul Islam (1983): The Ultimate Fate of the Universe. Cambridge University Printing, Cambridge, England. ISBN 978-0-521-11312-0. (Digital impress version published in 2009).

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultimate_fate_of_the_universe

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